Practice Free Practitioner Palo Alto Networks Cybersecurity Practitioner (PCCP) Exam Questions Answers With Explanation

Pharming is an attack that redirects traffic from a legitimate website to a malicious fake website, typically by corrupting the DNS system or modifying host files, with the intent of stealing user credentials or sensitive data.

Command and Control: Attackers establish encrypted communication channels back to command-and-control (C2) servers across the internet so that they can modify their attack objectives and methods as additional targets of opportunity are identified within the victim network, or to evade any new security countermeasures that the organization may attempt to deploy if attack artifacts are discovered.

Elastic scalability is the feature of the VM-Series firewalls that allows them to fully integrate into the DevOps workflows and CI/CD pipelines without slowing the pace of business. Elastic scalability means that the VM-Series firewalls can automatically adjust their capacity and performance based on the changing demand and workload of the applications they protect. This enables the VM-Series firewalls to provide consistent and optimal security across multiple cloud environments, while also reducing operational costs and complexity. Elastic scalability also allows the VM-Series firewalls to seamlessly integrate with automation and orchestration tools, such as Terraform, Ansible, and AWS CloudFormation, that are commonly used in DevOps processes. This way, the VM-Series firewalls can be deployed and managed as part of the application development lifecycle and CI/CD pipelines, ensuring that security is always aligned with the business needs and objectives. References: VM-Series Virtual Next-Generation Firewall - Palo Alto Networks, Securing Multi-Cloud Environments with VM-Series Virtual Firewalls, Terraform Modules for Palo Alto Networks VM-Series on AWS.

Serverless architecture is primarily implemented through Function as a Service (FaaS), where developers write and deploy individual functions without managing the underlying infrastructure. The cloud provider handles scaling, resource allocation, and execution on demand.

A container-based NGFW is specifically designed to integrate with Kubernetes environments, providing full application visibility and control within containerized workloads. It operates at the pod level, making it ideal for securing dynamic microservices architectures.

IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service) is a cloud computing model that delivers on-demand infrastructure resources to organizations via the cloud, such as compute, storage, networking, and virtualization1. Customers do not have to manage, maintain, or update their own data center infrastructure, but are responsible for the operating system, middleware, virtual machines, and any apps or data1. Therefore, IaaS gives customers full control over the operating system(s) running on their cloud computing platform, as well as the flexibility to customize and configure their infrastructure according to their needs2. References: What are the different types of cloud computing? | Google Cloud, PaaS vs IaaS vs SaaS: What’s the difference? | Google Cloud

A Security Information and Event Management (SIEM) system collects data from various sources (logs, events, etc.) and uses correlation rules to analyze this data and trigger alarms when suspicious or predefined patterns are detected.

Signature-based malware detection relies on a constantly updated database of known threat signatures to identify malicious files or activity. Without frequent updates, it becomes ineffective against newly emerging threats.

HTTPS is a protocol that encrypts and secures the communication between web browsers and servers. HTTPS uses SSL or TLS certificates to establish a secure connection and prevent unauthorized access or tampering of data. HTTPS typically uses port 443, which is the default port for HTTPS connections. Port 443 is different from port 80, which is the default port for HTTP connections. HTTP is an unencrypted and insecure protocol that can expose sensitive information or allow malicious attacks. Port 443 is also different from port 5050, which is a common port for some applications or services, such as Yahoo Messenger or SIP. Port 5050 is not associated with HTTPS and does not provide any encryption or security. Port 443 is also different from port 25, which is the default port for SMTP, the protocol used for sending and receiving emails. Port 25 is not associated with HTTPS and does not encrypt the email content or headers. References:

•Palo Alto Networks Certified Cybersecurity Entry-level Technician (PCCET) - Palo Alto Networks

•HTTPS Protocol: What is the Default Port for SSL & Common TCP Ports

•What is HTTPS? | Cloudflare

•Can I use another port other than 443 for HTTPS/SSL communication?

Routing protocols are defined at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model. The network layer is responsible for routing packets across different networks using logical addresses (IP addresses). Routing protocols are used to exchange routing information between routers and to determine the best path for data delivery. Some examples of routing protocols are BGP, OSPF, RIP, and EIGRP. Palo Alto Networks devices support advanced routing features using the Advanced Routing Engine1. References: Advanced Routing - Palo Alto Networks | TechDocs, What Is Layer 7? - Palo Alto Networks, How to Configure Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

Application allow listing is a security practice that permits only pre-approved (trusted) applications, files, and processes to run on a system. This approach helps prevent unauthorized or malicious software from executing, thereby reducing the attack surface.

 In the given network diagram, device D is depicted as a cloud symbol, which is commonly used to represent the internet in network diagrams. The router is typically connected to the internet and acts as a gateway for internal network devices to access external networks. Therefore, device D is the router in this context. References: Virtual Router Overview - Palo Alto Networks | TechDocs, Networking (UDRs) in Azure: Inserting the VM-Series into an Azure …, Setting Up the PA-200 for Home and Small Office - Palo Alto Networks …

Containers encapsulate applications and their dependencies into lightweight, portable units that can run consistently across multiple environments. This abstraction supports cloud-native development by enabling microservices architectures, rapid deployment, and scaling within orchestration platforms like Kubernetes. Containers accelerate cloud migration by decoupling applications from infrastructure, facilitating automation, and continuous integration/continuous deployment (CI/CD) workflows. Palo Alto Networks addresses container security by integrating runtime protection, vulnerability scanning, and compliance enforcement within its Prisma Cloud platform, ensuring safe adoption of cloud-native tools and methodologies.

Identity and access management (IAM) is a software service or framework that allows organizations to define user or group identities within software environments, then associate permissions with them. The identities and permissions are usually spelled out in a text file, which is referred to as an IAM policy.

802.11ax, also known as Wi-Fi 6, is an internet of things (IoT) connectivity technology that operates on the 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands, as well as all bands between 1 and 6GHz when they become available for 802.11 use, at ranges up to 11 Gbit/s. 802.11ax is designed to improve the performance, efficiency, and capacity of wireless networks, especially in high-density environments such as smart homes, smart cities, and industrial IoT. 802.11ax uses various techniques such as orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA), multi-user multiple input multiple output (MU-MIMO), target wake time (TWT), and 1024 quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) to achieve higher data rates, lower latency, longer battery life, and reduced interference for IoT devices. References:

•Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax) - Palo Alto Networks

•What is Wi-Fi 6? | Wi-Fi 6 Features and Benefits | Cisco

•What is Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax)? - Definition from WhatIs.com

Virtualization improves the availability of IT systems and resources by enabling features such as12:

Resource optimization: Virtualization allows multiple virtual instances to share the same physical infrastructure, reducing hardware costs and increasing resource utilization.

Scalability: Virtualization enables rapid provisioning and deprovisioning of virtual instances, allowing organizations to scale up or down their IT capacity according to demand.

Disaster recovery: Virtualization facilitates backup and replication of virtual instances, allowing organizations to restore their IT systems and data in the event of a disaster or outage.

Fault tolerance: Virtualization supports high availability and load balancing of virtual instances, ensuring that IT systems and services remain operational even if one or more virtual instances fail. References: Virtualization Benefits: How Virtualization Improves Efficiency and Security | VMware, Virtualization Security - A Complete Guide - CyberExperts.com

Workload security in a Cloud Native Security Platform (CNSP) is designed to secure containers, VMs, and serverless functions throughout the entire application lifecycle — from development to runtime — by detecting and blocking vulnerabilities, misconfigurations, and runtime threats.

Cortex XDR breaks the silos of traditional detection and response by natively integrating network, endpoint, and cloud data to stop sophisticated attacks

"The WildFire cloud-based malware analysis environment is a cyber threat prevention service that identifies unknown malware, zero-day exploits, and advanced persistent threats (APTs) through static and dynamic analysis in a scalable, virtual environment. WildFire automatically disseminates updated protections in near-real time to immediately prevent threats from spreading; this occurs without manual intervention"

Lateral movement is a key stage where the attacker moves across the network to find valuable targets.

Privilege escalation involves gaining higher access rights to expand control within the compromised environment.

Communication with covert channels is a tactic used during persistence or exfiltration, while deletion of critical data is not a standard APT lifecycle stage — it’s more characteristic of destructive attacks.

 Connectors and interfaces are the components that enable a SIEM to collect, process, and analyze data from various sources, such as Microsoft 365 services and applications1, cloud platforms, network devices, and security solutions. Connectors are responsible for extracting and transforming data from the source systems, while interfaces are responsible for sending and receiving data to and from the SIEM server. Without connectors and interfaces, a SIEM cannot operate correctly and ensure a translated flow from the system of interest to the SIEM data lake. References:

SIEM server integration with Microsoft 365 services and applications

What Is SIEM Integration? 2024 Comprehensive Guide - SelectHub

SIEM Connector - docs.metallic.io

SIEM Connector

Data security is the only type of security that the customer is fully responsible for when using a SaaS application. Data security refers to the protection of data from unauthorized access, use, modification, deletion, or disclosure. Data security includes aspects such as encryption, backup, recovery, access control, and compliance12. The customer is responsible for ensuring that their data is secure in transit and at rest, and that they comply with any applicable regulations or policies regarding their data.

The other types of security - physical, platform, and infrastructure - are the responsibility of the SaaS provider. Physical security refers to the protection of the hardware and facilities that host the SaaS application. Platform security refers to the protection of the software and services that run the SaaS application. Infrastructure security refers to the protection of the network and systems that support the SaaS application. The SaaS provider is responsible for ensuring that these layers of security are maintained and updated, and that they meet the required standards and certifications34. References:

SaaS and the Shared Security Model

A Guide to SaaS Shared Responsibility Model

The Shared Responsibility Model for Security in The Cloud (IaaS, PaaS & SaaS)

Shared responsibility in the cloud

Cortex XDR is a security analytics platform that converges logs from network, identity, endpoint, application, and other security relevant sources to generate high-fidelity behavioral alerts and facilitate rapid incident analysis, investigation, and response1. Cortex XDR uses machine learning algorithms to automate data analysis and apply modeling in real time, helping organizations to reduce analyst workloads and improve security1. Cortex XDR also integrates with Palo Alto Networks next-generation firewalls and other security tools to streamline and speed network security response2. References: Security Analytics - Palo Alto Networks, Network Security Automation - Palo Alto Networks

 A switch is a network device that connects multiple devices on a local area network (LAN) and forwards data packets between them. A switch can be identified by its icon, which is a rectangle with four curved lines on each side. In the attached network diagram, device D is the switch, as it matches the icon and connects three computers to device A, which is another network device. References:

[What is a Network Switch and How Does it Work?]

[Network Diagram Symbols and Icons | Lucidchart]

 A routed protocol is a protocol by which data can be routed. It provides appropriate addressing information in its internet layer or network layer to allow a packet to be forwarded from one network to another network. Examples of routed protocols are the Internet Protocol (IP) and Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX). IP is the most widely used routed protocol on the Internet and other networks. It assigns a unique logical address to each device and enables data to be fragmented, reassembled, and routed across multiple networks. References:

Routing v/s Routed Protocols in Computer Network

Routing protocol - Wikipedia

CCNA Certification: Routed Protocols vs Routing Protocols

What is the difference between Routing Protocols and Routed Protocols

Cortex XDR is an endpoint product from Palo Alto Networks that can help with SOC visibility by allowing you to rapidly detect and respond to threats across your networks, endpoints, and clouds. It assists SOC analysts by allowing them to view all the alerts from all Palo Alto Networks products in one place, and to perform root cause analysis and automated response actions. Cortex XDR also integrates with other Palo Alto Networks products, such as WildFire, AutoFocus, and Cortex Data Lake, to provide comprehensive threat intelligence and data enrichment12. References:

SOC Services - Palo Alto Networks

Endpoint Protection - Palo Alto Networks

Security Operations | Palo Alto Networks

Cortex - Palo Alto Networks

? Type 1 (native or bare metal). Runs directly on the host computer’s hardware

? Type 2 (hosted). Runs within an operating system environment

The Anthem data breach of 2015 was caused by a phishing scheme that captured a database administrator’s password. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Office for Civil Rights (OCR), hackers sent phishing emails to an Anthem subsidiary. At least one employee responded. Attackers were able to plant malware on the company’s system and gain remote access to confidential information1. The breach exposed the electronic protected health information of almost 79 million people, including names, Social Security numbers, medical identification numbers, addresses, dates of birth, email addresses, and employment information2. References:

Anthem Pays OCR $16 Million in Record HIPAA Settlement Following Largest U.S. Health Data Breach

How Anthem Data Breach Exposed Personnel Records - IDStrong

Phishing is a type of email attack where the attacker sends a lot of malicious emails in an untargeted way, pretending to be a trusted source, such as a bank or an online retailer, to trick users into revealing sensitive information, such as passwords or credit card numbers. Attackers use the information to steal money or to launch other attacks. A fake email from a bank asking you to click a link and verify your account details is an example of phishing1 References:

1: Palo Alto Networks Certified Cybersecurity Entry-level Technician - Palo Alto Networks

2: 10 Palo Alto Networks PCCET Exam Practice Questions - CBT Nuggets

3: Types of Email Attacks - Examples and Consequences - Tessian

4: What Is a Phishing Attack? Definition and Types - Cisco

Decryption is required to inspect TLS-encrypted traffic, allowing security tools (such as firewalls or intrusion prevention systems) to analyze the contents of the traffic for threats that would otherwise remain hidden within encrypted sessions.

A layer 2 switch will break up collision domains but not broadcast domains. To break up broadcast domains you need a Layer 3 switch with vlan capabilities.

 A sanctioned application is an application that is approved by the IT department and meets the security and compliance requirements of the organization. Sanctioned applications are allowed to access the organization’s network and data and are monitored and protected by the IT department. Examples of sanctioned applications are Office 365, Salesforce, and Zoom. Sanctioned applications are different from unsanctioned, prohibited, and tolerated applications, which are not approved by the IT department and may pose security risks to the organization. Unsanctioned applications are applications that are used by the employees without the IT department’s knowledge or consent, such as Dropbox, Gmail, or Facebook. Prohibited applications are applications that are explicitly forbidden by the IT department, such as BitTorrent, Tor, or malware. Tolerated applications are applications that are not approved by the IT department, but are not blocked or restricted, such as Skype, Spotify, or YouTube. References: Palo Alto Networks Certified Cybersecurity Entry-level Technician (PCCET), Cloud Security Fundamentals - Module 4: Cloud Security Best Practices, Application Visibility and Control

Event Viewer is a native Windows application that can be used to inspect actions taken at a specific time. Event Viewer displays detailed information about significant events on your computer, such as application, security, system, and setup events. You can use Event Viewer to monitor and troubleshoot problems with your computer, such as hardware failures, software errors, security breaches, network issues, etc. Event Viewer allows you to filter, sort, and search events by various criteria, such as date and time, event level, event source, event ID, etc. You can also view the event properties, which provide more details about the event, such as the event description, user name, computer name, event data, etc. Event Viewer can help you identify the root cause of a problem, or provide evidence of a malicious activity, by inspecting the actions taken at a specific time on your computer. References:

Palo Alto Networks Certified Cybersecurity Entry-level Technician (PCCET) - Palo Alto Networks

WinAppDriver and Desktop UI Test Automation - Microsoft Tech Community

Palo Alto Networks PCCET Quiz 1 Topic 14 Questions 1-5 - Buddy4Exam

Paloalto Networks Exam PCCET Questions and Answers - DumpsMate

Event Viewer - Windows 10 - Microsoft Docs

Heap spray attacks exploit memory management vulnerabilities by injecting malicious code into a program’s heap to manipulate execution flow. Endpoint Detection and Response (EDR) platforms monitor memory and process behavior on endpoints, enabling the detection of such memory-based exploits through anomaly and behavior analysis. Palo Alto Networks’ Cortex XDR equips SOC teams with the tools to detect, analyze, and respond to heap spray and other in-memory attacks on company laptops in real time. EDR’s endpoint-centric visibility is crucial since heap spray attacks operate below network layers and often bypass traditional perimeter defenses.

A next-generation firewall (NGFW) is a security component that can detect command-and-control (C2) traffic sent from multiple endpoints within a corporate data center. A NGFW is a network device that combines traditional firewall capabilities with advanced features such as application awareness, intrusion prevention, threat intelligence, and cloud-based analysis. A NGFW can identify and block C2 traffic by inspecting the application layer protocols, signatures, and behaviors of the network traffic, as well as correlating the traffic with external sources of threat intelligence. A NGFW can also leverage inline cloud analysis to detect and prevent zero-day C2 threats in real-time. A NGFW can provide granular visibility and control over the network traffic, as well as generate alerts and reports on the C2 activity. References:

Palo Alto Networks Certified Cybersecurity Entry-level Technician (PCCET)

Command and Control, Tactic TA0011 - Enterprise | MITRE ATT&CK®

Advanced Threat Prevention: Inline Cloud Analysis - Palo Alto Networks

IoT devices often have constant internet connectivity and increased data sharing, making them more vulnerable to command-and-control (C2) attacks. Their limited security features and exposure to external networks provide attackers more opportunities to compromise and control them remotely.

A meddler-in-the-middle (MITM) attack is a type of Wi-Fi attack where the attacker intercepts and redirects the victim’s web traffic to serve content from a web server it controls. The attacker can use various techniques, such as ARP spoofing, DNS spoofing, or SSL stripping, to trick the victim into connecting to a rogue access point or a proxy server that acts as a middleman between the victim and the legitimate website. The attacker can then modify, inject, or drop the packets that are exchanged between the victim and the website, and perform malicious actions, such as stealing credentials, injecting malware, or displaying fake or misleading content. A MITM attack can compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of the victim’s web traffic and expose them to various risks and threats. References:

What is a man-in-the-middle attack?

The 5 most dangerous Wi-Fi attacks, and how to fight them

What Are Sniffing Attacks, and How Can You Protect Yourself?

Determining system health using unaltered system data – Active monitoring collects real-time data to assess the current health and performance of systems.

Using probes to establish potential load issues – Active monitoring uses synthetic transactions or probes to simulate user interactions and identify performance or load-related issues before they affect users.

Assessing severity levels – UEBA data helps prioritize incidents by evaluating the risk and severity based on user and entity behavior.

Detecting and correlating anomalies – UEBA continuously analyzes activity to identify abnormal behavior and correlate anomalies that may indicate insider threats or compromised accounts.

A directory service is a database that contains information about users, resources, and services in a network.

 In SecOps, the identify stage is the first step in the security operations lifecycle. It involves gaining knowledge and understanding of the possible security threats and establishing methods to detect, respond and proactively prevent them from occurring1. Two of the components included in the identify stage are:

Initial Research: This component involves gathering information about the organization’s assets, vulnerabilities, risks, and compliance requirements. It also involves identifying the key stakeholders, objectives, and metrics for the SecOps project2.

Content Engineering: This component involves developing and maintaining the security content, such as rules, policies, signatures, and alerts, that will be used by the SecOps tools and processes. It also involves testing and validating the security content for accuracy and effectiveness3.

 What is SecOps? (and what are the benefits and best practices?), SecOps - definition & overview, The Six Pillars of Effective Security Operations

A physical firewall is ideal for environments like a company headquarters that require redundant power, high throughput, and dedicated hardware for maximum reliability and performance. It supports more robust failover and scalability compared to virtual or containerized options.

Cortex XDR is an endpoint tool or agent that can enact behavior-based protection. Behavior-based protection is a method of detecting and blocking malicious activities based on the actions or potential actions of an object, such as a file, a process, or a network connection. Behavior-based protection can identify and stop threats that are unknown or evade traditional signature-based detection, by analyzing the object’s behavior for suspicious or abnormal patterns. Cortex XDR is a comprehensive solution that provides behavior-based protection for endpoints, networks, and cloud environments. Cortex XDR uses artificial intelligence and machine learning to continuously monitor and analyze data from multiple sources, such as logs, events, alerts, and telemetry. Cortex XDR can detect and prevent advanced attacks, such as ransomware, fileless malware, zero-day exploits, and lateral movement, by applying behavioral blocking and containment rules. Cortex XDR can also perform root cause analysis, threat hunting, and incident response, to help organizations reduce the impact and duration of security incidents. References:

Cortex XDR - Palo Alto Networks

Behavioral blocking and containment | Microsoft Learn

Behaviour Based Endpoint Protection | Signature-Based Security - Xcitium

The 12 Best Endpoint Security Software Solutions and Tools [2024]

 A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects end-user devices such as personal computers, printers, scanners, and phones within a small geographic area, such as an office, school, or home. LANs allow users to share resources, such as files, applications, and internet access, among the connected devices. LANs typically use Ethernet or Wi-Fi as the communication medium and operate at high speeds with low error rates. LANs are usually owned and managed by a single person or organization. References: LANs, WANs, and Other Area Networks Explained, What is a LAN? Local Area Network, Types of area networks - LAN, MAN and WAN

Automation in SOAR (Security Orchestration, Automation, and Response) is the process of programming tasks, alerts, and responses to security incidents so that they can be executed without human intervention. Automation in SOAR helps security teams to handle the huge amount of information generated by various security tools, analyze it through machine learning processes, and take appropriate actions based on predefined rules and workflows. Automation in SOAR also reduces the manual effort and time required for security operations, improves the accuracy and efficiency of threat detection and response, and provides consistency in handling security issues across different environments and scenarios. References: What is SOAR (security orchestration, automation and response)? | IBM, What Is SOAR? Technology and Solutions | Microsoft Security, Security orchestration - Wikipedia.

SOAR stands for security orchestration, automation and response. It is a software solution that enables security teams to integrate and coordinate separate tools into streamlined threat response workflows. SOAR systems allow for accelerated incident response through the execution of standardized and automated playbooks that work upon inputs from security technology and other data flows. SOAR systems can also help ensure consistency, reduce human errors, and improve efficiency and scalability of security operations. References:

Security Operations Infrastructure from Palo Alto Networks

What is SOAR (security orchestration, automation and response)? from IBM

Security Operations Fundamentals (SOF) Flashcards from Quizlet

Advanced malware is designed to evade detection and persist within a system, often using stealthy techniques to spread laterally across multiple hosts in a network without triggering alerts, making it especially dangerous and difficult to remove.

Tunneling is a method of transporting data across a network using protocols that are not supported by that network. Tunneling works by encapsulating packets: wrapping packets inside of other packets. Tunneling within commonly used services is a technique that uses file sharing or an instant messenger client such as Meebo running over HTTP to bypass firewalls or other network restrictions. The data packets are encapsulated within HTTP packets and sent as normal web traffic. This way, the data packets can reach their destination without being blocked or detected by the network. References: What is tunneling? | Tunneling in networking | Cloudflare, What Is Network Tunneling & How Is It Used? | Traefik Labs, networking - What is HTTP tunneling? - Stack Overflow

"Remember that a trust zone is not intended to be a “pocket of trust” where systems (and therefore threats) within the zone can communicate freely and directly with each other. For a full Zero Trust implementation, the network would be configured to ensure that all communications traffic, including traffic between devices in the same zone, is intermediated by the corresponding Zero Trust Segmentation Platform."

An application allow list prevents malware from executing by only permitting approved applications to run on an endpoint. Any unauthorized or unknown software, including malicious programs, is automatically blocked from executing.

Stateful packet inspection firewalls Second-generation stateful packet inspection (also known as dynamic packet filtering) firewalls have the following characteristics:

? They operate up to Layer 4 (Transport layer) of the OSI model and maintain state information about the communication sessions that have been established between hosts on the trusted and untrusted networks.

? They inspect individual packet headers to determine source and destination IP address, protocol (TCP, UDP, and ICMP), and port number (during session establishment only) to

determine whether the session should be allowed, blocked, or dropped based on configured

firewall rules.

? After a permitted connection is established between two hosts, the firewall creates and

deletes firewall rules for individual connections as needed, thus effectively creating a tunnel that allows traffic to flow between the two hosts without further inspection of individual packets during the session.

? This type of firewall is very fast, but it is port-based and it is highly dependent on the

trustworthiness of the two hosts because individual packets aren’t inspected after the

connection is established.

A credit card number is an example of PII that you need to prevent from leaving your enterprise network. PII, or personally identifiable information, is any information that can be used to identify an individual, either alone or in combination with other data. PII can be sensitive or non-sensitive, depending on the level of protection required and the potential harm if exposed. Sensitive PII includes data that can directly identify an individual and cause significant harm if leaked or stolen, such as financial information, medical records, or government-issued ID numbers. Non-sensitive PII includes data that is easily accessible from public sources and does not pose a high risk of identity theft, such as zip code, race, or gender. A credit card number is a sensitive PII because it can be used to access the cardholder’s account, make fraudulent transactions, or steal their identity. Therefore, it is important to prevent credit card numbers from leaving the enterprise network, where they could be intercepted by hackers, malicious insiders, or third parties. To protect credit card numbers and other sensitive PII, enterprises should implement data security measures such as encryption, tokenization, masking, access control, auditing, and monitoring. Additionally, enterprises should comply with data privacy laws and standards that regulate the collection, use, and protection of PII, such as the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS), the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), or the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA). References:

What is PII? Examples, laws, and standards | CSO Online

What is Personally Identifiable Information (PII)? | IBM

What Is Personally Identifiable Information (PII)? Types and Examples

What is PII (personally identifiable information)? - Cloudflare

What is Personally Identifiable Information (PII)? - Data Privacy Manager

The IP stack adds source (sender) and destination (receiver) IP addresses to the TCP segment (which now is called an IP packet) and notifies the server operating system that it has an outgoing message ready to be sent across the network.

The URL Filtering service complements App-ID by enabling you to configure the next-generation firewall to identify and control access to websites and to protect your organization from websites that host malware and phishing pages.

Ensuring that your cloud resources and SaaS applications are correctly configured and adhere to your organization’s security standards from day one is essential to prevent successful attacks. Also, making sure that these applications, and the data they collect and store, are properly protected and compliant is critical to avoid costly fines, a tarnished image, and loss of customer trust. Meeting security standards and maintaining compliant environments at scale, and across SaaS applications, is the new expectation for security teams.

Scanning for excessive logins – ITDR identifies suspicious patterns such as unusual or excessive login attempts, which may indicate credential abuse.

Analyzing access management logs – ITDR tools analyze identity-related logs, including authentication and authorization events, to detect threats tied to user behavior and access anomalies.

Device security and signature matching are not core functions of ITDR; they fall under endpoint protection and traditional threat detection respectively.

OSPF is a link-state routing protocol that requires all routers in the same domain to maintain a map of the network. This map is called the link-state database (LSDB) and it contains information about the topology and the state of each link. Each router independently calculates the shortest path to every destination in the network using the Dijkstra algorithm. OSPF routers exchange routing information by flooding link-state advertisements (LSAs) to their neighbors. LSAs are acknowledged by the receivers to ensure reliable delivery12. References:

What Is OSPF? Understanding Network Protocols By WireX Systems

Routing Protocols Overview - Global Knowledge

North-South traffic refers to the data packets that move between the virtualized environment and the external network, such as the internet or a traditional data center. This traffic typically involves requests from clients to access applications or services hosted on virtual machines (VMs) or containers, or responses from those VMs or containers to the clients. North-South traffic can also include management or monitoring traffic from external devices to the virtualized environment. References: Fundamentals of Cloud Security, East-West and North-South Traffic Security, What is the meaning / origin of the terms north-south and east-west traffic?

MITRE is a not-for-profit organization that operates research and development centers sponsored by the federal government. MITRE maintains the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) catalog, which is a dictionary of common names for publicly known cybersecurity vulnerabilities. CVE’s common identifiers, called CVE Identifiers, make it easier to share data across separate network security databases and tools, and provide a baseline for evaluating the coverage of an organization’s security tools12. References:

Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE®)

CVE - CVE